4. Oregon Country
Far to the northwest of Texas lay Oregon Country, an enormous, tree-covered wilderness that stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. To the north, Oregon was bounded by Alaska, which belonged to Russia, and to the south, it was bordered by Spanish California and New Mexico. Indigenous groups such as the Salish, Chinook, and Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) controlled and lived on these lands.
By 1819, Oregon had been claimed by four nations: Russia, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Spain gave up its claim to Oregon as part of the treaty to purchase Florida. In 1825, Russia agreed to limit its claim to the territory north of the line that today marks the southern border of Alaska.
That left Great Britain and the United States. For the time being, the two nations agreed to a peaceful “joint occupation” of Oregon, despite the Indigenous groups already inhabiting the land.
Exploring Oregon The United States based its claim to Oregon on the Lewis and Clark expedition. Between 1804 and 1806, Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and Sacagawea had led a small band of explorers to the Oregon coast.
Lewis thought that many more Americans would follow the path established by the expedition. “In the course of 10 or 12 Years,” he predicted in 1806, “a tour across the Continent by this rout [route] will be undertaken with as little concern as a voyage across the Atlantic.”
That was wishful thinking, as the route that Lewis and Clark had followed was far too rugged for ordinary travelers without the assistance of various Indigenous groups. There had to be a better way to cross the continent. In 1824, a young fur trapper named Jedediah Smith found a better route when he discovered a passage through the Rocky Mountains called South Pass.
Unlike the high, steep passes used by Lewis and Clark, South Pass was low and flat enough for wagons to cross the Rockies. Now, the path was open for colonizers to seek their fortunes in Oregon.
Oregon Fever Among the first American colonizers to travel through South Pass to Oregon were missionaries. These missionaries made few converts among Oregon’s Indigenous groups, but their glowing reports of Oregon’s fertile soil and towering forests soon attracted more colonizers. These natural resources had long been valued by the Indigenous people of the area.
Early settlers wrote letters home describing Oregon as a “pioneer’s paradise” and claiming that the weather was always sunny. Their letters also stated that disease was unknown, trees grew as thick as hairs on a dog’s back, and farms were free for the taking.
Reports like these inspired other colonizers who were looking for new beginnings. In 1843, about 1,000 pioneers headed for Oregon in covered wagons. The following year, nearly twice as many people made the long journey across the plains and mountains. “The Oregon Fever has broke out,” reported one observer, “and is now raging.”
All of Oregon or Half? Along with Texas, “Oregon fever” played a role in the 1844 presidential campaign. Polk won the election with such stirring slogans as “All of Oregon or none!” and “Fifty-four forty or fight!” He promised he would not rest until the United States had annexed all of Oregon Country.
However, Polk did not want Oregon enough to risk starting a war with Great Britain. Instead, he agreed to a compromise treaty that divided Oregon roughly in half at the 49th parallel, which now marks the western border between the United States and Canada.
The Senate debate over the Oregon treaty was fierce. Southern and eastern senators favored the treaty and saw no reason to go to war over “worse than useless territory on the coast of the Pacific.” Western senators opposed the treaty and demanded all of Oregon. On June 18, 1846, the Senate ratified the compromise treaty.
By the 1850s, White settlers subjected most Indigenous groups to broken treaties. They were forced to either assimilate or leave the land they had called home for centuries.
In the 1800s, wagon trains transported thousands of White colonizers, families from established eastern settlements to the rugged West. This wagon train is winding its way across Nebraska toward Oregon Country.
In the 1800s, wagon trains transported thousands of White colonizers, families from established eastern settlements to the rugged West. This wagon train is winding its way across Nebraska toward Oregon Country.
Colonizers who took the 2,000-mile trek from Independence, Missouri, to Oregon Country found fertile land in the Willamette Valley. This valley’s proximity to fresh water sources, which were very important to Indigenous groups such as the Cowlitz, also made it a great place to settle.
Colonizers who took the 2,000-mile trek from Independence, Missouri, to Oregon Country found fertile land in the Willamette Valley. This valley’s proximity to fresh water sources, which were very important to Indigenous groups such as the Cowlitz, also made it a great place to settle.
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Reading Check
Reading Check
Section 4 - Oregon Country
Score: 0
Select the appropriate term for each blank.
In 1819, Oregon was claimed by Option 1: twoOption 2: fourOption 3: sixChoose an answer nations, but by 1825 joint occupation was agreed upon by the United States and Option 1: Great BritainOption 2: RussiaOption 3: FranceChoose an answer. Option 1: Lewis and ClarkOption 2: Jedediah SmithOption 3: Daniel BooneChoose an answer discovered the South Pass that was used by migrating settlers. The Option 1: 49th parallelOption 2: Oregon TrailOption 3: Continental DivideChoose an answer marks the modern-day border between the United States and Canada.
Submit
Notes
Unit/Lesson:
Lesson 17 - Manifest Destiny and the Growing Nation
Section:
Section 4 - Oregon Country (p. 352 - 353)
Previous SectionSection 3 - Texas
Next SectionSection 5 - The Mexican-American War
1. What agreement did Great Britain and the United States make in the 1820s concerning Oregon?
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2. Why was Oregon called a “pioneer’s paradise”?
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3. What did James Polk mean when he declared “Fifty-four forty or fight!” in the 1844 presidential campaign? Did he follow through with this campaign promise? Explain.
1. Great Britain and the United States made an agreement in the 1820s to peacefully "jointly occupy" Oregon.
2. Oregon was called a "pioneer's paradise" because of its fertile soil, towering forests, and favorable weather conditions, which attracted colonizers looking for new beginnings.
3. When James Polk declared "Fifty-four forty or fight!" in the 1844 presidential campaign, he meant that he would not rest until the United States had annexed all of Oregon Country up to the 54°40' parallel. However, he ultimately compromised and agreed to divide Oregon roughly in half at the 49th parallel to avoid going to war with Great Britain.
In 1819, Oregon was claimed by Option 1: twoOption 2: fourOption 3: sixChoose an answer nations, but by 1825 joint occupation was agreed upon by the United States and Option 1: Great BritainOption 2: RussiaOption 3: FranceChoose an answer. Option 1: Lewis and ClarkOption 2: Jedediah SmithOption 3: Daniel BooneChoose an answer discovered the South Pass that was used by migrating settlers. The Option 1: 49th parallelOption 2: Oregon TrailOption 3: Continental DivideChoose an answer marks the modern-day border between the United States and Canada.
In 1819, Oregon was claimed by four nations. By 1825, joint occupation was agreed upon by the United States and Great Britain. Jedediah Smith discovered the South Pass that was used by migrating settlers. The 49th parallel marks the modern-day border between the United States and Canada.
5. The Mexican-American War
Texas and Oregon were not sufficient new territory for Polk. This humorless, hardworking president had the goal of expanding the United States as far as possible.
Polk’s gaze fell next on the huge areas known as California and New Mexico. He was determined to have them both—by purchase if possible, by force if necessary.
These areas were first colonized by Spain but became Mexican territories when Mexico won its independence in 1821. Because both were thinly settled and long neglected by the Mexican government, Polk hoped that they might be for sale. He sent a representative to Mexico to try to buy the territories, but Mexican officials refused to even see Polk’s representative.
War Breaks Out in Texas When Congress voted to annex Texas, relations between the United States and Mexico turned sour. Mexico considered the annexation of Texas an act of war, and, to make matters worse, Texas and Mexico could not agree on a border. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its border to the south and the west, whereas Mexico wanted the border to be the Nueces (new-AY-sis) River, about 150 miles northeast of the Rio Grande.
On April 25, 1846, Mexican soldiers fired on U.S. troops who were patrolling the disputed region along the Rio Grande. Sixteen Americans were killed or wounded. This was just the excuse for war that Polk had been waiting for, as he considered the area to be American territory. Two days after Polk’s speech, Congress declared war on Mexico, starting the Mexican-American War.
The Fall of New Mexico and California A few months later, General Stephen Kearny led the Army of the West out of Kansas with orders to occupy New Mexico and then continue west to California. Mexican opposition disintegrated in front of Kearny’s army, and the Americans took control of New Mexico without firing a shot. “Gen’l Kearny,” a pleased Polk wrote in his diary, “has thus far performed his duty well.”
Meanwhile, a group of American settlers launched a rebellion against Mexican rule in California. The explorer John C. Frémont heard about the uprising and gave his support to the settlers. The Americans arrested and jailed General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo (vuh-YAY-oh), the Mexican commander of northern California. Then they raised a crude flag showing a grizzly bear sketched in blackberry juice and declared California the Bear Flag Republic.
When Kearny reached California, he joined forces with the rebels. Within weeks, all of California was under U.S. control.
The United States Invades Mexico The conquest of Mexico south of the Rio Grande was far more difficult. U.S. troops under General Zachary Taylor battled their way south from Texas. Taylor was a no-nonsense general who was known fondly as “Old Rough and Ready” because of his backwoods clothes. After 5,000 U.S. troops took the Mexican city of Monterrey, their old opponent General Santa Anna stopped them by marching north to meet Taylor with an army of 15,000 Mexican troops.
In February 1847, the two forces met near a ranch called Buena Vista (BWEY-nuh VIS-tuh). After two days of hard fighting, Santa Anna reported that “both armies have been cut to pieces.” Rather than lose his remaining forces, Santa Anna retreated south, ending the war in northern Mexico.
A month later, U.S. forces led by General Winfield Scott landed at Veracruz (ver-uh-CROOZ) in southern Mexico. Scott had previous military experience in forcibly removing the Cherokee from their lands. For the next six months, his troops fought their way to Mexico City, Mexico’s capital.
Outside the capital, the American forces met fierce resistance at the castle of Chapultepec (chuh-PUHL-tuh-PEK). About 1,000 Mexican soldiers and 100 young military cadets fought bravely to defend the fortress. Six of the cadets chose to die fighting rather than surrender, and to this day, the boys who died that day are honored in Mexico as the Niños Héroes (NEEN-yos EHR-oh-ace), the boy heroes.
Despite such determined resistance, Scott’s army captured Mexico City in September 1847. Watching from a distance, a Mexican officer muttered darkly, “God is a Yankee.”
In May 1846, American forces fought Mexican troops in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas. Here, Captain Charles May captures a Mexican officer during battle.
In May 1846, American forces fought Mexican troops in the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas. Here, Captain Charles May captures a Mexican officer during battle.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo In early 1848, Mexico and the United States signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa-duh-LOO-pay hih-DAHL-go). Mexico agreed to give up Texas and a vast region known as the Mexican Cession (a cession is something that is given up.) This area included the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, as well as parts of Colorado and Wyoming.
Under this agreement, Mexico gave up half of all its territory, and in return, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. The United States also promised to protect the property and civil rights of the 80,000 to 100,000 Mexicans living in Texas and the Mexican Cession. However, when the Senate later ratified the treaty, they removed some of these promises to the nation’s new inhabitants.
In Washington, a few senators had spoken up to oppose the treaty. Some argued that the United States had no right to any Mexican territory other than Texas, largely because the Mexican-American War had been unjust and the treaty was even more so. They said New Mexico and California together were “not worth a dollar” and should be returned to Mexico.
Other senators opposed the treaty because they wanted even more land and believed the Mexican Cession should include a large part of northern Mexico as well. To most senators, however, the Mexican Cession was a manifest destiny dream come true. The Senate ratified the treaty by a vote of 38-14.
The Gadsden Purchase A few years later, the United States acquired still more land from Mexico. In 1853, James Gadsden arranged the purchase of a strip of land just south of the Mexican Cession for $10 million. Railroad builders wanted this land because it was relatively flat and could serve as a good railroad route. The acquisition of this land, known as the Gadsden Purchase, created the present-day border of the southwestern United States with Mexico.
Most Americans were pleased with the new outlines of their country, but not everyone rejoiced in this expansion. Some people believed the United States was being a bully, taking advantage of its weaker neighbors. Now they knew that such behavior was the dark side of manifest destiny.
Americans used war balloons for attacks and reconnaissance. This illustration shows soldiers sending a balloon into the air.
Americans used war balloons for attacks and reconnaissance. This illustration shows soldiers sending a balloon into the air.
The Mexican Cession added California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico to the United States, as well as parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The Gadsden Purchase was a region of land purchased from Mexico that was added to Arizona and New Mexico.
The Mexican Cession added California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico to the United States, as well as parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The Gadsden Purchase was a region of land purchased from Mexico that was added to Arizona and New Mexico.
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Reading Check
Reading Check
Section 5 - The Mexican-American War
Score: 0
Territory from which states was given to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?
Submit
Notes
Unit/Lesson:
Lesson 17 - Manifest Destiny and the Growing Nation
Section:
Section 5 - The Mexican-American War (p. 354 - 356)
Previous SectionSection 4 - Oregon Country
Next SectionLesson Summary
1. Why did President Polk think the Mexican government might want to sell California and New Mexico?
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2. Label the map with sentences to explain why the U.S. Congress declared war on Mexico in 1846.
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3. Choose two of these Mexican-American War battle locations: New Mexico, California, Monterrey, Buena Vista, or Chapultepec. Then create two historical newspaper headlines for each of your two battle locations. For the first headline, write what could have been used by a U.S. newspaper whose editors agreed with manifest destiny. For the second headline, write what could have been used by a newspaper in Mexico.
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4. List three details of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Then give two reasons some U.S. senators opposed this treaty.
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5. Why did the United States buy the Gadsden Purchase in 1853?
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1. President Polk thought the Mexican government might want to sell California and New Mexico because they were thinly settled and long neglected by the Mexican government.
2. The map is not available for reference in this text, but Congress declared war on Mexico in 1846 after Mexican soldiers fired on U.S. troops patrolling the disputed region along the Rio Grande.
3. a. Battle of New Mexico:
- U.S. Manifest Destiny newspaper headline: "American Forces Triumphantly Capture New Mexico Territory!"
- Mexican newspaper headline: "Brave Mexican Defenders Fight Against U.S. Invaders in New Mexico!"
b. Battle of Chapultepec:
- U.S. Manifest Destiny newspaper headline: "American Troops Overcome Mexican Resistance at Chapultepec Castle!"
- Mexican newspaper headline: "Mexican Soldiers Defend Chapultepec with Honor Against U.S. Aggression!"
4. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo details:
- Mexico agreed to give up Texas and a vast region known as the Mexican Cession.
- The United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million.
- The United States promised to protect the property and civil rights of Mexicans living in Texas and the Mexican Cession.
Reasons some U.S. senators opposed the treaty were that they believed the war had been unjust and the treaty was even more so. They also argued that New Mexico and California were not worth acquiring and should be returned to Mexico.
5. The United States bought the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 because railroad builders wanted the relatively flat land for a good railroad route.