What were the 8 features that all civilizations had in common?
In his book "The Human Web: A Bird's-Eye View of World History," historian J.R. McNeill suggests that all civilizations have had eight essential features in common. These features are as follows:
1. Urbanization: All civilizations have experienced the growth of cities as centers of population, trade, and governance. Urbanization is often a result of surplus agricultural production, as it allows for the concentration of various economic and social activities.
2. Complex Religion: Civilizations tend to develop complex religious beliefs and practices, often with rituals and ceremonies. These religious systems typically involve a belief in a divine or supernatural power(s) and provide explanations for the mysteries of life and death.
3. Stratified Social Structure: Civilizations often have hierarchical social structures with different social classes or castes. These divisions are based on factors such as wealth, occupation, or birth and can influence an individual's opportunities, rights, and privileges.
4. Political Organization: All civilizations have some form of political organization. This can range from simple chiefdoms or city-states to complex empires or nation-states. Political systems establish rules for governance, maintain order, adjudicate disputes, and provide security.
5. Economic Specialization and Trade: Civilizations typically develop specialized economic roles and occupations beyond agriculture. These may include craftsmen, merchants, priests, warriors, rulers, and other specialized professions. This division of labor enables trade and the exchange of goods and services within and between civilizations.
6. Writing and Record Keeping: Written communication is a crucial feature of civilizations, as it allows for the transmission and preservation of knowledge, history, laws, and cultural traditions. Systems of writing emerge in civilizations to record transactions, create legal codes, spread religious texts, and promote education.
7. Artistic Expression: Civilizations produce diverse forms of artistic expression, such as architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, music, and dance. Art reflects the values, beliefs, and aesthetics of a society and serves as a means of communication, cultural identity, and creative expression.
8. Technological Innovation: Civilizations tend to experience ongoing technological developments that improve agriculture, transportation, industry, warfare, or communication. Technological innovations often arise from the need to solve societal problems, improve efficiency, or fulfill human desires and aspirations.
Please note that these features are not static or uniform across civilizations and may vary in intensity or manifestation in different cultures and time periods.
While there is no clear-cut list of features that all civilizations have in common, there are some general characteristics that are often shared among them. Here are eight features that are commonly attributed to civilizations:
1. Agriculture: Most civilizations developed the knowledge and techniques for cultivating crops and raising animals, which allowed for settled societies and the growth of population.
2. Complex social organization: Civilizations tend to have hierarchical structures with different social classes, specialized occupations, and formalized systems of governance.
3. Urbanization: A hallmark of civilizations is the establishment of cities as centers of political, economic, and cultural activity, characterized by dense populations and significant infrastructure.
4. Development of writing: Many civilizations devised systems of writing or recording information, which allowed for the preservation and transmission of knowledge, as well as the development of literature and legal systems.
5. Technological advancements: Civilizations tend to display an ability to create and innovate in various fields such as architecture, engineering, metallurgy, medicine, and transportation.
6. Complex belief systems: Most civilizations develop elaborate religious or spiritual beliefs that provide explanations for the world, establish moral codes, and help shape cultural practices.
7. Artistic and architectural achievements: Civilizations often produce unique art forms, architecture, and cultural expressions, which reflect their values, beliefs, and aesthetic sensibilities.
8. Trade networks: Civilizations engage in economic exchanges over long distances, both within their territories and with other civilizations, facilitating the transfer of goods, ideas, and cultural influences.
It's important to note that these features can vary in prominence and manifestation, and not all civilizations may possess each feature to the same degree. Additionally, there can be exceptions and variations depending on the specific civilization being studied.