America’s annexation of Hawaii in 1898 extended U.S. territory into the Pacific. . . . For most
of the 1800s, leaders in Washington were concerned that Hawaii might become part of a
European nation’s empire. During the 1830s, Britain and France forced Hawaii to accept
treaties giving them economic privileges. In 1842, Secretary of State Daniel Webster sent
a letter to Hawaiian agents in Washington affirming U.S. interests in Hawaii and opposing
annexation by any other nation. He also proposed to Great Britain and France that no nation
should seek special privileges or engage in further colonization of the islands. In 1849, the
United States and Hawaii concluded a treaty of friendship that served as the basis of official
relations between the parties.
A key provisioning spot for American whaling ships, fertile ground for American protestant
missionaries, and a new source of sugar cane production, Hawaii’s economy became
increasingly integrated with the United States. An 1875 trade reciprocity treaty further linked
the two countries and U.S. sugar plantation owners from the United States came to dominate
the economy and politics of the islands. When Queen Liliuokalani moved to establish a
stronger monarchy, Americans under the leadership of Samuel Dole deposed her in 1893.
The planters’ belief that a coup and annexation by the United States would remove the
threat of a devastating tariff on their sugar also spurred them to action. The administration
of President Benjamin Harrison encouraged the takeover, and dispatched sailors from the
USS Boston to the islands to surround the royal palace. The U.S. minister to Hawaii, John L.
Stevens, worked closely with the new government.
Dole sent a delegation to Washington in 1894 seeking annexation, but the new President,
Grover Cleveland, opposed annexation and tried to restore the Queen. Dole declared Hawaii
an independent republic. Spurred by the nationalism aroused by the Spanish-American War,
the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898 at the urging of President William McKinley. Hawaii
was made a territory in 1900, and Dole became its first governor. Racial attitudes and party
politics in the United States deferred statehood until a bipartisan compromise linked Hawaii’s
status to Alaska, and both became states in 1959.
The annexation of Hawaii was controversial at the time, with many criticizing the United States for forcibly taking over the islands and overthrowing the Hawaiian monarchy. The indigenous population of Hawaii, who had their own unique culture and traditions, were marginalized and their voices silenced in the course of American colonization.
The economic motives behind the annexation cannot be overstated. The United States saw Hawaii as a valuable strategic and economic asset, with its rich resources and ideal location in the Pacific. The sugar industry in particular played a major role in the annexation, with American plantation owners looking to secure their profits by aligning with the U.S. government.
The annexation of Hawaii highlights the complex and often troubling history of American expansionism and imperialism in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It serves as a reminder of the lasting impact that colonialism and conquest can have on indigenous peoples and their land.
I transmit herewith, with a view to its ratification, a treaty of annexation concluded on the
14th day of February, 1893, between John W. Foster, Secretary of State, who was duly
empowered to act in that behalf on the part of the United States, and Lorin A. Thurston, W. R.
Castle, W. C. Wilder, C. L. Carlet, and Joseph Marsden, the commissioners on the part of
the Government of the Hawaiian Islands. The provisional treaty, it will be observed, does not
attempt to deal in detail with the questions that grow out of the annexation of the Hawaiian
Islands to the United States. The commissioners representing the Hawaiian Government have
consented to leave to the future and to the just and benevolent purposes of the United States
the adjustment of all such questions.
I do not deem it necessary to discuss at any length the conditions which have resulted in
this decisive action. It has been the policy of the Administration not only to respect but to
encourage the continuance of an independent government in the Hawaiian Islands so long
as it afforded suitable guaranties for the protection of life and property and maintained a
stability and strength that gave adequate security against the domination of any other power.
The moral support of this Government has continually manifested itself in the most friendly
diplomatic relations and in many acts of courtesy to the Hawaiian rulers.
The overthrow of the monarchy was not in any way promoted by this Government, but had its
origin in what seems to have been a reactionary and revolutionary policy on the part of Queen
Liliuokalani, which put in serious peril not only the large and preponderating interests of the
United States in the islands, but all foreign interests, and, indeed, the decent administration
of civil affairs and the peace of the islands. It is quite evident that the monarchy had become
effete and the Queen’s Government so weak and inadequate as to be the prey of designing
and unscrupulous persons. The restoration of Queen Liliuokalani to her throne is undesirable,
if not impossible, and unless actively supported by the United States would be accompanied
by serious disaster and the disorganization of all business interests. The influence and interest
of the United States in the islands must be increased and not diminished.
Only two courses are now open—one the establishment of a protectorate by the United
States, and the other annexation full and complete. I think the latter course, which has been
adopted in the treaty, will be highly promotive of the best interests of the Hawaiian people,
and is the only one that will adequately secure the interests of the United States. These
interests are not wholly selfish. It is essential that none of the other great powers shall secure
these islands. Such a possession would not consist with our safety and with the peace of the
world. This view of the situation is so apparent and conclusive that no protest has been heard
from any government against proceedings looking to annexation. Every foreign representative
at Honolulu promptly acknowledged the provisional Government, and I think there is a general
concurrence in the opinion that the deposed Queen ought not to be restored.
Prompt action upon this treaty is very desirable. If it meets the approval of the Senate,
peace and good order will be secured in the islands under existing laws until such time as
Congress can provide by legislation a permanent form of government for the islands. This
message from President Grover Cleveland to Congress in 1893 sheds light on the reasons behind the annexation of Hawaii by the United States. The President explains that the U.S. had maintained friendly relations with the Hawaiian monarchy but was compelled to intervene in light of the instability and weakness of Queen Liliuokalani's government. The President argues that the annexation of Hawaii is necessary to maintain stability in the region and prevent other global powers from seizing control of the islands.
President Cleveland also presents two options for the U.S. in regards to Hawaii: establishing a protectorate or full annexation. He expresses his belief that annexation is the best course of action for both the Hawaiian people and the United States, as it will prevent other nations from taking control of the islands and ensure the safety of American interests. The President suggests that restoring the deposed Queen to power would lead to disaster and the disorganization of business interests.
It is clear from this message that economic and strategic interests, as well as concerns about the influence of other global powers, were driving forces behind the annexation of Hawaii by the United States at the time. President Cleveland's arguments highlight the complex political and diplomatic considerations that influenced American involvement in Hawaii during this period.
egislation should be, and I do not doubt will be, not only just to the natives and all other
residents and citizens of the islands, but should be characterized by great liberality and a high
regard to the rights of all people and of all foreigners domiciled there. The correspondence
which accompanies the treaty will put the Senate in possession of all the facts known to the
Executive.
President Grover Cleveland emphasizes in this message the importance of enacting legislation that is fair and just to all residents and citizens of Hawaii, including the native population and foreigners living on the islands. He calls for laws that are characterized by great liberality and respect for the rights of all individuals, regardless of their background or nationality.
The President assures Congress that the accompanying correspondence will provide them with all the necessary information and facts related to the treaty and the situation in Hawaii. This transparency is crucial in helping senators make an informed decision on whether to ratify the annexation treaty and on the future governance of the islands.
President Cleveland's emphasis on fairness, justice, and respect for all people in Hawaii reflects a commitment to upholding democratic values and human rights in the annexation process. It underscores the importance of creating a legal framework that protects the rights and interests of all individuals in the newly acquired territory.
To the Congress of the United States:
. . . While our foreign relations have not at all times during the past year been entirely free
from perplexity, no embarrassing situation remains that will not yield to the spirit of fairness
and love of justice which, joined with consistent firmness, characterize a truly American
foreign policy.
It is hardly necessary for me to state that the questions arising from our relations with
Hawaii have caused serious embarrassment. Just prior to the installation of the present
Administration the existing Government of Hawaii had been suddenly overthrown and a
treaty of annexation had been negotiated between the Provisional Government of the islands
and the United States and submitted to the Senate for ratification. This treaty I withdrew for
examination and dispatched Hon. James H. Blount, of Georgia, to Honolulu as a special
commissioner to make an impartial investigation of the circumstances attending the change of
government and of all the conditions bearing upon the subject of the treaty. After a thorough
and exhaustive examination Mr. Blount submitted to me his report, showing beyond all
question that the constitutional Government of Hawaii had been subverted with the active
aid of our representative to that Government and through the intimidation caused by the
presence of an armed naval force of the United States, which was landed for that purpose at
the instance of our minister. Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable
course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those
representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our
forcible intervention. With a view of accomplishing this result within the constitutional limits
of executive power, and recognizing all our obligations and responsibilities growing out of
any changed conditions brought about by our unjustifiable interference, our present minister
at Honolulu has received appropriate instructions to that end. Thus far no information of the
accomplishment of any definite results has been received from him.
Additional advices are soon expected. When received they will be promptly sent to the
Congress, together with all other information at hand, accompanied by a special Executive
message fully detailing all the facts necessary to a complete understanding of the case and
presenting a history of all the material events leading up to the present situation.
In this message to Congress, President Grover Cleveland addresses the situation in Hawaii and expresses concern over the annexation treaty negotiated by the Provisional Government of Hawaii with the United States. President Cleveland acknowledges that the existing Government of Hawaii was overthrown with the help of U.S. representatives and naval forces, leading to a breach of constitutional governance in the islands.
To address this issue, President Cleveland dispatched special commissioner James H. Blount to investigate the circumstances surrounding the change of government in Hawaii. Blount's report revealed the unjustifiable interference of the United States in the internal affairs of Hawaii, prompting President Cleveland to take steps to restore the previous constitutional government and address the consequences of U.S. intervention in the situation.
The President emphasizes the importance of upholding fairness, justice, and American principles in dealing with foreign relations, including the situation in Hawaii. He pledges to provide Congress with all necessary information and a detailed account of events leading to the current state of affairs in Hawaii, demonstrating a commitment to transparency and accountability in resolving the issue. President Cleveland's actions reflect a dedication to upholding democratic values and correcting past injustices in the U.S. foreign policy approach towards Hawaii.
. . . .On January 14, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani left the government offices at Aliiolani Hale after
presiding over the ceremony ending the 1892 legislative session. As the royal band played,
her carriage clattered across the road to Iolani Palace, where she met with her new cabinet.
Her purpose was clear: to nullify the 1887 Bayonet Constitution, which had severely limited
her powers and the rights of native Hawaiians.
For Hawaii’s last ruling monarch, it proved to be the wrong move, at the wrong time. The
mood in Honolulu was already ugly. American interests, dominated by sugar growers and
suffering from two years of economic depression, were critical of the government and
advocated annexation of Hawaii to the United States.
The idea of foreign annexation wasn’t a new one. English, French, Russian, and American
ships and diplomats had been maneuvering for influence in the Islands practically ever since
Captain James Cook had made the first Western contact in 1778.
Although Hawaii’s monarchs tended to feel more comfortable with the British, from the arrival
of the first American whalers in 1819 (missionaries followed a year later), Americans became
the dominant foreign influence. Even royal government had a distinctly American flavor.
Hawaii’s first constitution—signed by Kamehameha III in 1840—was drafted with help from
American advisers.
While the machinations of European and American interests in the Pacific helped keep Hawaii
from being gobbled up by a single power, proximity and growing trade inexorably tilted the
kingdom’s economic interests toward the United States. As whaling began to decline in
the 1860s, it was gradually replaced by agriculture on lands owned primarily by missionary
families and Americans.
But more than any other single factor, the kingdom’s fate was sealed by the rapidly
declining population of native Hawaiians. Between 1877 and 1890, more than 55,000
immigrant laborers, half of them Chinese, were brought to work the sugarcane fields. The
big wave of Japanese workers began in 1886. By 1890, foreign residents outnumbered
Hawaiians, and foreign diseases had so ravaged native Hawaiians that they numbered
fewer than 35,000—down from 400,000 estimated by one of Captain Cook’s lieutenants
in 1779.
Liliuokalani’s people, having lost most of their land and influence to foreigners and being a
minority in their own country, had little political clout left by 1893.
While the queen’s cabinet advised waiting for constitutional change, the mere threat
of that change was enough to move American interests to act. On January 16, more
than 160 U.S. Marines landed to protect American citizens and property. The next day,
a provisional government was proclaimed with Sanford B. Dole as president. To avoid
bloodshed, Liliuokalani, constitutional ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii and composer of the
heartrending Aloha Oe, yielded “to the superior force of the United States . . . until such
time as the Government of the United States shall . . . undo the action of its representatives
and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the constitutional sovereign of the
Hawaiian Islands.”
The events leading to the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani and the establishment of the provisional government in Hawaii in 1893 were grounded in a complex interplay of political, economic, and societal factors. The discontent among American interests, particularly sugar growers, who advocated for the annexation of Hawaii to the United States played a significant role in the circumstances that unfolded.
The 1887 Bayonet Constitution had severely limited the powers of the Hawaiian monarchy and the rights of native Hawaiians, prompting Queen Liliuokalani to move towards nullifying it. However, the prevailing economic depression, dominant American influence, and demographic shifts in Hawaii, with a declining native Hawaiian population and increasing immigrant labor, set the stage for instability and foreign intervention.
The arrival of American whalers and missionaries in the early 19th century significantly influenced Hawaii's political and economic landscape, with American interests gradually becoming predominant. The decline of the native Hawaiian population, coupled with the influx of foreign laborers, altered the demographic balance and diminished the political clout of native Hawaiians.
The threat of constitutional change by Queen Liliuokalani sparked swift action by American interests, leading to the landing of U.S. Marines in Hawaii to protect American citizens and property. Subsequently, the establishment of the provisional government, with Sanford B. Dole as president, and the abdication of Queen Liliuokalani marked a pivotal moment in Hawaii's history.
The events surrounding the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani underscore the complexities of colonialism, foreign intervention, and power dynamics that shaped Hawaii's trajectory towards annexation by the United States. The legacy of these events continues to resonate in the historical narrative of Hawaii's struggle for sovereignty and self-determination.
Even under the provisional government, Liliuokalani remained queen. But on January 16,
1895, she was arrested and imprisoned in Iolani Palace after the failure of a royalist-backed
counterrevolution. That same day, she opened her Bible to Psalms, and wrote across the top
of the page, “Am imprisoned in this room (the Southeast corner) by the government of the
Hawaiian Republic. In the attempt of the Hawaiian people to regain what had been wrested
from them by the children of the missionaries . . . and because they failed I am brought here,
to stay for five years.” Eight days later, the queen was forced to abdicate.