Leibniz presents monads as simple substances. Monads are infinite in number, unextended, and windowless, and each mirrors the universe. As a consequence, Leibniz contends that the universe manifests both order and perfection. Why does Leibniz give monads these characteristics, and how do monads relate to the order and perfection of the universe?

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Leibniz gives monads these characteristics because he believed that they are the fundamental building blocks of reality. According to him, monads are indivisible, unchangeable, and non-interacting entities that exist at the most basic level of existence.

To understand why Leibniz attributed these characteristics to monads, we need to consider his metaphysical perspective. Leibniz believed in a principle called the "principle of sufficient reason," which states that everything that happens has a reason or explanation. This principle led him to reject the idea of a materialistic universe where things are made up of extended matter. Instead, he proposed that reality is composed of simple substances that have no parts and cannot be subdivided.

Leibniz also believed in the existence of God, who created the best possible world. According to him, the characteristics of monads, such as being infinite in number, unextended, and windowless, allowed them to accurately reflect the universe created by God. As mirror-like entities, monads reflect and express the divine order and perfection of the universe.

The infinite number of monads reflects the richness and diversity of creation. Each monad is a unique reflection of the universe, capturing a particular aspect of reality. The unextended nature of monads means that they have no physical dimensions or spatial extension. They are metaphysical entities that exist outside the realm of space and time. This allows them to be non-interacting, as Leibniz believed that true interaction requires physical contact.

The windowless nature of monads means that they do not have direct access to the external world. Instead, each monad contains within itself a complete representation of the universe. This inner representation is called its "perception." Through their perceptions, monads indirectly interact with other monads and contribute to the overall order and harmony of the universe.

In summary, Leibniz gives monads these characteristics to account for the metaphysical nature of reality and its relationship to divine order and perfection. Monads, as simple substances, manifest the universe by reflecting its richness and diversity, while their unextended and windowless nature enables them to express the inherent order and harmony of creation.