describe how something is learned using classical conditioning. Be sure to identify the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and the conditioned response. For the second example you will use the theory of operant conditioning. For your third example you will use observational learning. Be sure to identify in your example the Schedules of Reinforcement.
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Classical conditioning is characterized by several factors.
I. The key relationship is associating antecedent events.
II. It originates with reflexive behavior. The behavior is "built in."
III. Classical conditioning is essentially a process of stimulus substitution. The response essentially remains the same.
IV. The response is elicited, since the behavior is reflexive.
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning was started by Skinner and his box. In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning has some specific qualities.
I. Consequences to responses are the key relationship.
II. Emitted responses are voluntary rather than reflexive.
III. Response substitution occurs -- unreinforced responses go to extinction, while reinforced responses become stronger. Essentially operant conditioning is response contingent reinforcement.
In classical conditioning, the unconditoned stimulus (US) is one which reflexively causes a response. One example is putting something into your mouth causes salivation. In this case the unconditioned response (UR) is the response to a US presented alone, the salivation.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) originally has little or no effect. Only when the CS is repeatedly paired with a US (or previously learned CS) will it become a CS. A good example is the sound of a cellophane wrapper being opened. Originally it has little or no effect. However, after being repeatedly paired with eating candy or other foods, it alone will produce the conditioned response. The conditioned response (CR) is one given to the CS when presented alone.
Reinforcement has different effects depending on the schedule of reinforcement.
I. Continuous (100%) reinforcement (Q student, p. 294) means that the organism is reinforced for every desired response. This schedule provides quickest learning, but it is the quickest to go to extinction
II. Partial reinforcement is slower to learn, but it takes longer to go to extinction.
A. Fixed Ratio (FR) involves reinforcing (SR) in a direct ratio to number of responses (Rs), but not every R. It leads to a high R rate (piecework, commission examples).
B. Fixed Interval (FI) involves SR at end of specified period for a minimum R. Regardless of how many Rs give over minimum, only gets same SR at the end of interval. Typically has lower initial R rate but high R rate near the end of each interval. It involves a known deadline (term paper, exams, Xmas examples).
C. Random, variable interval (VI) or variable ratio (VR) involve receiving SR at unpredictable times. Although the experimenter may be using either VI or VR, to the subject it appears to be random. Although organism cannot predict when SR will come, expects it to come. This leads to high R rate and 1:210 ratio between learning trials and extinction. (Compare with instructor's "x" responses.) (discipline, tantrum, gambling, superstition, "shark god," baseball examples).
Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an association is created between two stimuli, resulting in a behavioral response. This type of learning was developed by Ivan Pavlov and involves the following components: unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).
In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that triggers a natural or reflexive response without any prior learning. The unconditioned response (UR) is the natural or reflexive response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggers a learned response. The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response that is similar or identical to the original unconditioned response, but is now triggered by the conditioned stimulus alone.
Here's an example to illustrate classical conditioning: Suppose a researcher wants to condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell. Initially, the unconditioned stimulus (US) would be the presentation of food, which naturally causes the dog to salivate (UR). The conditioned stimulus (CS) would be the sound of a bell, initially a neutral stimulus that does not elicit salivation. The researcher then begins pairing the sound of the bell (CS) with the presentation of food (US) repeatedly over several trials. After this repeated pairing, the dog starts to associate the sound of the bell with the food, resulting in the conditioned response (CR) of salivating at the sound of the bell alone.
Moving on to operant conditioning, this type of learning involves the use of rewards or punishments to shape and reinforce desired behaviors. It was extensively studied by B.F. Skinner and focuses on the consequences that follow a behavior.
In operant conditioning, behaviors are either reinforced or punished. Reinforcement refers to the process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring again, while punishment refers to the process of decreasing the likelihood of a behavior. The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more or less likely to be repeated.
Operant conditioning can be further understood through the schedules of reinforcement, which determine the timing and frequency of reinforcement. There are several schedules of reinforcement, including continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement.
For example, let's consider teaching a child to clean their bedroom using operant conditioning. Initially, the behavior of cleaning the room is not present, so the parent can start with continuous reinforcement. Every time the child successfully cleans their room, they receive praise and a small reward. Continuous reinforcement means that the behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. This practice helps establish the desired behavior.
Once the behavior is learned, the parent can switch to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement. For instance, they might switch to a fixed interval schedule, where the child only receives a reward if their room is consistently clean at the end of each week. This intermittent reinforcement schedule helps maintain the behavior over time, even without constant reinforcement.
Observational learning, also known as social learning, involves acquiring new behaviors or skills by observing and imitating others. It was extensively studied by Albert Bandura and emphasizes the importance of vicarious experiences.
In observational learning, there are no direct rewards or punishments involved. Instead, individuals acquire new behaviors by observing the actions of others and the consequences they face. The four stages of observational learning include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
For example, imagine a child learning how to ride a bike by watching their older sibling. The child attentively observes the sibling's actions, paying attention to how they balance, pedal, and steer. Next, the child retains the observed information by mentally processing and storing it. Then, the child tries to reproduce the observed behavior, attempting to ride the bike while imitating the sibling's actions. Finally, the child's motivation to ride a bike, perhaps driven by the desire to be more independent or to join their sibling in activities, facilitates the learning process.
To summarize, classical conditioning involves learning an association between stimuli, operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of behavior, and observational learning occurs through the observation and imitation of others. Each type of learning has its own unique components and processes.