According to Kant, we have no direct duties to animals because they lack personal attributes such as___________.
a.
Rationality.
b.
Self-consciousness.
c.
Free will.
d.
All of the above.
The answer is (d) All of the above.
To get to this answer, we need to understand Immanuel Kant's perspective on our duties towards animals. According to Kant, our ethical duties are determined by our ability to reason and make moral choices. Animals, on the other hand, lack certain personal attributes that humans possess, which Kant believed are important for moral consideration.
Firstly, animals lack rationality. Rationality, according to Kant, is the ability to think and make choices based on higher moral principles. Since animals do not possess this kind of rationality, Kant argued that they do not have the same moral status as humans and therefore we have no direct duties towards them.
Secondly, animals lack self-consciousness. Self-consciousness refers to the awareness of oneself as a distinct individual with a mind and desires. According to Kant, self-consciousness is important for moral consideration because it enables individuals to recognize and respect the rights and interests of others. Animals, lacking self-consciousness, would also lack the ability to understand or have rights in the same way that humans do.
Lastly, animals lack free will. Free will is the capacity to make choices and act upon them in accordance with one's own desires and intentions. Kant believed that moral responsibility is related to an individual's ability to freely choose and act in accordance with moral principles. Since animals do not possess free will, they cannot be held morally responsible for their actions, nor can they be the recipients of moral duties.
Therefore, according to Kant, we have no direct duties to animals because they lack personal attributes such as rationality, self-consciousness, and free will. The correct answer is (d) All of the above.