Trace the memory system from stimuli into long-term memory. Discuss the features of each step and factors that enhance or impede information flow in each step of the process. Explain proactive and retroactive interference and how you might counteract their effects while studying in order to facilitate maximum absorption of information into long-term memory. Explain other kinds of forgetting and discuss some strategies that can improve memory consolidation and/or retrieval.

These sites will help you learn about the memory system.

(Broken Link Removed)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_theory

http://allpsych.com/psychology101/memory.html

Although this might be a repetition of previous data, here is basic summary of the memory system and some other aspects.

http://www.members.cox.net/dagershaw/lol/Memory.html
http://www.members.cox.net/dagershaw/lol/MemoryAge.html
http://www.members.cox.net/dagershaw/lol/RememberName.html
http://www.members.cox.net/dagershaw/lol/MemoryHelp.html

In addition, here are some of my lecture notes on the topic:

Negative transfer, proactive and retroactive interference all stem from a particular relationship among tasks. One task has S1-->R1, while the other task has S1-->R2. The stimuli are the same in both tasks, but the responses are very different.

In contrast, positive transfer, proactive and retroactive facilitation have the same relationship for the first task (S1-->R1). The other task has the same response, but following a new stimulus (S2-->R1).

Whole vs. Part Learning

I. Whole method relates to the serial position effect, which seems to combine primacy (consolidated in LTM) and regency (still in STM). Relate to proactive and retroactive interference discussed previously.

II. Part Method only has problem with transitions.

III. Progressive part method is best for rote learning. Overlearning leads to longer retention, especially under conditions of stress.

IV. However, for complex ideas and principles as in psychology (hint, hint, hint), it is best to use whole method first and then the part method.

Spaced (distributed) vs. Massed Practice. Diagram on board to indicate that terms are relative. Spaced practice is best with rote learning and simple motor tasks. As learning becomes more complex -- either motor or verbal -- spaced practice loses its advantage. For complex ideas and principles as in psychology (hint, hint, hint), it is best to use massed practice first, then spaced practice. (This differs from methods that most students use in studying.)

Spaced practice helps to break a fixation or negative set ("mental block," similar to negative transfer). Massed practice forms and maintains fixations. In contrast, a positive set (similar to positive transfer) is like learning how to learn and test-wiseness (discussed more later).

Two problems to illustrate negative sets or fixations.

I. Draw a square of dots, with 3 dots on each side and a dot in the middle. The task is to draw 4 straight lines through all nine dots without lifting the drawing instrument from the paper. (Demo that each change in direction is a new line.)

As they work, notify them that you have give them a negative set and urge them to "BREAK THAT SET!" Note that the more emotional they become, the worse the fixation will be. If not solved after 5-10 minutes, explain.

II. With 6 sticks of equal length, construct 4 equilateral triangles with sides equal to the length of (an unbroken) stick. Note that they can draw the solution on their paper if they want to do so. As they work, notify them that you have give them a negative set and urge them to "BREAK THAT SET!" Note that the more emotional they become, the worse the fixation will be. If not solved after 5-10 minutes, explain.

Note that people often limit themselves with these fixations, rather than having the limits externally imposed.

Recitation (vs. reading only) does not mean merely underlining or highlighting. It involves saying aloud or writing the material, so it gets you to think about it. In most cases, it is best to spend up to 80% of the time in recitation as vs. reading only (learning checks, olds exams, questions in class examples). (Add "I know it, but I can't tell you what I know" example.)

Advice to the study-lorn (similar to SQ3R method) -- how to study.

I. Read chapter summary first, then skim over chapter all at once (or as close to that as possible). This is survey to give an overview (similar to Gestalt), while using whole method and massed practice first.

II. Read one topic (column, page, heading to heading), close book, take scratch paper and write down all the important points in that section (Q student, Why write?) Open book to check accuracy, repeat "prn," but do spaced practice. This method is recitation along with the, spaced practice, feedback (KR), and progressive part method that leads to overlearning.

III. Review all work weekly, which will lead to progressive part method over the semester (relate to forgetting curve and final exam).

IV. Read assignment when assigned to avoid procrastination , which leads to massed practice ("cramming") just before exams (blank, no future retention [similar to no learning] examples).

V. Use study guide and old exams (Q student, Why?), which leads to more recitation and feedback (KR).

VI. After studying individually for an exam, get together in study groups to quiz each other (at least 2 nights before, explain). This leads to more recitation and feedback (KR).

VII. Compete with teacher and other students to answer questions to yourself ("Don't call on me" example). ). This leads to more recitation and feedback (KR).

VIII. Review exam (feedback), so you don't make same mistakes on the final (Q student to relate to definition of learning).

IX. Study, then sleep, which leads to consolidation of LTM and reduced chances for interference.

X. Study for every class as if you will be tested in that meeting (questions for students example).

XI. (Q student, How many hours per week do you study for all courses on average?) Recommend minimum of 2 hours/week for every semester credit (double for summer school). Realize that all course do not require outside time, but others require more than the minimum (like psychology, hint, hint, hint).

I hope this helps a little more. Thanks for asking.

The memory system can be traced from stimuli all the way to long-term memory through a series of steps. Let's break it down:

1. Sensory Memory: This is the initial stage of memory processing where information from the senses is briefly stored. It has two main components:
- Iconic Memory: This is the visual sensory memory, which lasts for a fraction of a second.
- Echoic Memory: This is the auditory sensory memory, which lasts for a few seconds.

Factors influencing information flow: The main factor that enhances information flow in sensory memory is attention. Paying attention to a specific stimulus increases the likelihood of transferring it to the next stage.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): This is where information from the sensory memory goes through selective attention and gets further processed. The capacity of STM is limited, and the information lasts for about 20-30 seconds unless it is rehearsed.

Factors influencing information flow: The main factor that enhances information flow in STM is rehearsal. Repeating or elaborating on the information helps in consolidation and transfer to the next stage. Factors that can impede information flow include distractions and lack of focus.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): This stage involves the encoding and storage of information for later retrieval. It has two main components:
- Explicit (Declarative) Memory: This involves conscious memories, such as facts and events.
- Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: This involves unconscious memories, such as skills and habits.

Factors influencing information flow: The main factor that enhances information flow in LTM is meaningfulness. Making connections, using mnemonic techniques, and relating new information to existing knowledge can enhance encoding and retention. Factors that can impede information flow include stress, fatigue, and lack of organization in one's learning approach.

Proactive and Retroactive Interference:
- Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the acquisition of new information.
- Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the retrieval of previously learned information.

Counteracting their effects: To counteract proactive interference, one can try to make clear distinctions between similar information or use retrieval practice to reinforce older memories. In the case of retroactive interference, spacing out learning sessions and creating a well-organized study schedule can help avoid interference.

Other kinds of forgetting:
- Decay Theory: This suggests that memories fade or weaken over time due to a lack of retrieval or rehearsal. To counteract this, regular retrieval practice and spaced repetition can help reinforce and maintain memories.
- Interference Theory: This states that forgetting occurs when new or old memories interfere with the retrieval of information. Strategies like practicing retrieval with varied cues and minimizing interference can be useful.
- Retrieval Failure: Sometimes, information is stored in long-term memory but cannot be retrieved due to a lack of proper cues or context. Employing retrieval cues, context-dependent learning, and mnemonic techniques can help improve retrieval.

Strategies to improve memory consolidation and retrieval:
- Mnemonic devices: These techniques involve creating associations or visualizations to aid memory.
- Chunking: Grouping information into smaller, meaningful chunks to enhance encoding and retrieval.
- Elaborative rehearsal: Relating new information to existing knowledge and creating meaningful connections.
- Retrieval practice: Actively recalling information from memory to reinforce and strengthen neural pathways.
- Spacing effect: Distributing study sessions over time rather than cramming, allowing for better retention and retrieval.

By understanding these steps, factors, and strategies, you can optimize your learning and memory processes and facilitate maximum absorption of information into long-term memory.